Earthquake
An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves.
Tsunami
A tsunami also called a tsunami wave train, and at one time incorrectly referred to as a tidal wave, is a series of water waves caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body of water, usually an ocean, though it can occur in large lakes.
Tornado
A tornado (often referred to as a twister or, erroneously, a cyclone) is a violent, dangerous, rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud.
Floods
A flood is an overflow of an expanse of water that submerges land. The EU Floods directive defines a flood as a temporary covering by water of land not normally covered by water
Volcanic Eruptions
Volcanoes can cause widespread destruction and consequent disaster through several ways. The effects include the volcanic eruption itself that may cause harm following the explosion of the volcano or the fall of rock.
Terrain Affects the Avalanche
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Terrain affects avalanche occurrence and development through three factors: First, terrain affects the evolution of the snow pack by determining the meteorological exposure of the snow pack. Second, terrain affects the stability of the snow pack, through the geometry and ground composition of the slope. Third, the down slope features of the terrain affects the path and consequences of a flowing avalanche.
For a slope to generate an avalanche it must be simultaneously capable of retaining snow, and allowing snow to accelerate once set in motion. The angle of the slope that can hold snow depends on the ductile and shear strength of the snow, which is determined by the temperature and moisture content of the snow. Drier and colder snow, with lower ductile and shear strength, will only bond to lower angle slopes; while wet and warm snow, with higher ductile and shear strength, can bound to very steep surfaces. In particular, in coastal mountains, such as the Cordillera del Paine region of Patagonia, deep snow packs collect on vertical, and overhanging, rock faces. The angle of slope that can allow moving snow to accelerate depends on the shear strength of the snow. Snow that has been water saturated to the point of slush can accelerate on shallow angled terrain; while a cohesive snow pack will not accelerate on very steep slopes, such as the typical snow pack in the Chugach Mountains of Alaska.
The snow pack on slopes with sunny exposures are strongly influenced by sunshine. Daily cycles of mild thawing and refreezing can stabilize the snow pack by promoting settlement, strong freeze thaw cycles will result in the formation of surface crusts during the night, and the formation of unstable isothermal snow during the day. Slopes in the lee of a ridge or other wind obstacle accumulate more snow and are more likely to include pockets of abnormally deep snow, wind slabs, and cornices, all of which, when disturbed, may trigger an avalanche. Conversely a windward slope will be bare of snow.
The start zone of an avalanche must be steep enough to allow snow to accelerate once set in motion, additionally convex slopes are less stable than concave slopes, because of the disparity between the tensile strength of snow layers and their compressive strength. The composition and structure of the ground surface beneath the snow pack influences the stability of the snow pack, either being a source of strength or weakness. Thickly forested areas are unlikely to be avalanche paths, however boulders and sparsely distributed vegetation can create weak areas deep within the snow pack, through the formation of strong temperature gradients. Full-depth avalanches (avalanches that sweep a slope virtually clean of snow cover) are more common on slopes with smooth ground cover, such as grass or rock slabs.
Avalanches follow drainages down slope, frequently sharing drainage features with summertime watersheds. At and below tree line these drainages are well defined by vegetation boundaries where the avalanches have prevented the growth of large vegetation. Engineered drainages, such as the avalanche dam on Mount Stephen in Kicking Horse Pass, have been constructed to protect people and property, by redirecting the flow of avalanches. Deep debris deposits from avalanches will collect in catchments at the terminus of a run out, such as gullies, and river beds.
Slopes flatter than 25 degrees or steeper than 60 degrees typically have a lower incidence of avalanche involvement, likewise slopes with windward and sunny exposure have a lower incidence of avalanche involvement . Human triggered avalanches have the greatest incidence when the snow's angle of repose is between 35 and 45 degrees; the critical angle, the angle at which the human incidence of avalanches is greatest, is 38 degrees. But when the incidence of human triggered avalanches are normalized by the rates of recreational use hazard increases uniformly with slope angle, and no significant difference in hazard for a given exposure direction can be found. The rule of thumb is: A slope that is flat enough to hold snow but steep enough to ski has the potential to generate an avalanche, regardless of the angle.
